Book Review Task Based Language Teaching

Information of Book Review

Book Title                    : Task-Based Language Teaching

Writer                          : David Nunan

Amount of Chapter      : 8 Chapters

Amount of Pages         : 218 pages

Published                    : In the United States of America by Cambridge

                                     University Press, New York

Year of Published        : 2004

Website                       : www.cambridge.org
Reviewed                    : Rusdin

Task-Based Language Teaching

Task-Based Language Teaching is one of the teacher best guides for teaching learning process in the classroom. The information and pedagogy for the teaching are available in the book. In this book many information for the  teachers to show some ideas about how Task-Based Language Teaching can be run and apply in language classes. The writer of this book achieves this by providing teachers with models and an empirical basis for Task-Based Language Teaching, clarifying the role of focus on form in Task-Based Language Teaching, and giving teachers some ideas about how Task-Based Language Teaching can be assessed. The book consists of eight chapters on different aspects of Task-Based Language Teaching and each of chapter is connected each other about information of Task-Based Language Taching. Nunan point to different researchers’ ideas before starting his own approach. This style of proceeding provides the reader with so many comprehension into Task-Based Language Teaching.

In the first chapter of Task-Based Language Teaching Nunan explain a model for Task-Based Language Teaching that articulated the relationship between tasks and other curricular elements discussed and set within a boarder curriculum frame work. He specified in the content about what is Task-Based and read whole the chapter, Nunan applied the term of communicative language teaching of Task-Based Language Teaching that concerned discussed about teaching model and style that can easy for the student to understand in receive the knowledge of the language in taught. Task-based is one of the important elements to be applied to the student; Nunan inform how Task-Based developed as a model of the teaching learning that articulated the relationship between task and other curricular element. In teaching model of Task-Based he discusses detail of the communicative language teaching, Alternative approaches to syllabus design, experiential learning, Policy and practice, and the role of the learner. It has been setting easily for the teachers to contribute their pedagogically in teaching.

In chapter 2 Nunan categorize the teaching language by developing a framework for transforming target or real-world tasks into pedagogical tasks. The author has been given exemplification of the detail elements that support of teaching English in using of a framework task-based. The sections of the developing syllabus in creating the concept of pedagogy the author design clearly of planning and material in teaching of student based on Task-Based Language Teaching. In the end of this chapter he explains the key of principles of Task-Based Language Teaching and the important place to learning that is classroom or classroom task-based.

In the chapter 3 Nunan assume that Task-Based Language Teaching discusses the whole teaching model in all. In this chapter he examine the key elements related to the task goal, input and procedures in specification of detail roles for the teachers and learners in setting for goal of Task-Based Language Teaching. In this task component the role of teacher and learner is really important to input data and procedures in what task to apply in process of teaching learning. Relationship of the learner as a participant in these of task component is important, so in the task component style consist of input, roles, settings, actions, monitoring, outcomes and feedback. The relationship between real world and pedagogic tasks, task and text authenticity and learning strategies in Task-Based Language Teaching are also touched on.

Chapter 4 Nunan talk about how to provide a summary of the research in task-based. One area of particular interest is that of task difficulty and complexity. In this chapter he divide the factor of difficulties in task management in teaching language and he focus on the output and input hypothesis of the task-based. By using five hypothesis of the Stephen Krashen’s theory the author engage that the component Task-Based Teaching Language can be analysis in succeeding of the teaching learning. Finding out the task difficulty the author input the discuss of the interaction, output and the negotiation of meaning, most of these studies to identify the characteristics of pedagogical tasks component that stimulated negotiation of meaning. By giving exemplification more about factors happen to learner in learning the author proposed two kinds dimension framework of task according to the expert one happen to the learner is making abstract such expressing the opinion in which of manner to spread out. So the important negotiation of meaning that important element in finding the task types and cognitive complexity.

Talking about ‘Focus on Form in Task-Based Language Teaching’ In Chapter 5, Nunan verify the nature of the controversy, form appropriate in to a task-based instructional cycle, and unfocused task. Form is learning conscious in acquiring the language and this study focus in grammatical instruction use by learners while unfocused task is the capable the learner of using any other resource of studying language. Grading, Sequencing and Integrating Tasks. Chapter 6: In this chapter some key elements in grading, sequencing and integrating tasks are explored. Nunan argues that many factors need to be taken into account and that these factors are interrelated. In this chapter Nunan focusing describe how the methodological device for classroom action, that it is a central curriculum planning tool. In his conclusion of this chapter, Nunan determine that many factors happening in the task to deciding to be appropriate ordering of the task.

Estimating Task-Based Language Teaching Chapter 7: This chapter is mainly about assessment in Task-Based Language Teaching. Key issues related to assessment are considered and related to the context of Task-Based Language Teaching. Some practical tools such as performance scales, portfolios and production tasks are explored. Task-Based Language Teaching presents challenges in all areas of the curriculum. This is particularly true for assessment, which is coming under increasing scrutiny as it is realized that Task-Based Language Teaching cannot be assessed according to traditional methods. In the final chapter Nunan focuses on tasks and teacher development: how teachers can evaluate and create their own tasks. Nunan concludes that tasks can be used as a point of departure for small scale classroom projects by teachers themselves. Chapter 8 is devoted to tasks and teacher development. The purpose of this chapter is to look at task construction and evaluation from the perspective of the teacher, and to provide suggestions for introducing tasks in teacher development workshops.

To conclude the whole reviewed of this book I would like to  make conclusion about the book of  Task-Based Language Teaching by David Nunan that Task-Based Language Teaching is an approach to language teaching organized around tasks rather than language structures. This book on Task-Based Language Teaching has been written with a very different and unique perspective. It not only discusses teaching pedagogy as an academic subject but also rethinks as to how it can be useful in the language teaching perspective. Teachers will make up their own minds as to whether their methods and techniques need reconsidering in the light of what teaching learning of the language, but, as with all new trends in linguistic theory and description, it is important that Task-Based Language Teaching be subjected not only to the scrutiny of applied linguists but also to the testing grounds of practical materials and classroom activities. One drawback with this book is that it gives little in theory and tells a lot in the form of activities. Though it’s the practical way of doing things but that’s true in the Western context. In our country of Indonesia context it has to tell more and do less while it’s the other way round. On the other hand writer provides the readers with a glossary of terms used in the book to clarify their meaning. “Reflection boxes” in each chapter make the writer and  reader interact and also make the reader consider how he/she can make use of Task-Based Language Teaching in their own teaching contexts. 

Summary book of Celce-Murcia

Teaching Language Skills; Speaking 

By R U S D I N

1.    Teaching Oral Skill by Anne Lazaraton

       In this book Lazaraton discusses teaching practice in oral skills pedagogy towards ESL/EFL classes.  Especially, in terms of how to arrange an oral skill class and determine its content. She also provided further information in teaching oral skills due to the ability to speak a language synonymous with knowing that language since speech is the most basic means of human communication. In part side of her book she emphasizes the most important role for the teacher to organize and facilitate the learner to provide their speaking skill ability. Teaching oral skills are not only critical for communication in the ESL/EFL classroom, they are necessary for communication in, and with the English speaking world. This book has given an overview of the theoretical basis for teaching oral skills communicatively, described some features of the oral skills class, detailed a number of speaking activities that promote oral skills development. It is reasonable to assume that the focus on the sociolinguistic and sociocultural dimensions of oral communication will continue. Overall, despite its inadequacy, this book is considered as good one since the information presented in the book is complete enough. Thus, the goal of communicative competence in teaching oral skills can be achieved.

2.    Teaching Pronunciation by Janet Goodwin

Goodwin classify that teaching pronunciation is one of fundamental method in speaking skill area of learning the language. Pronunciation is one of non native speakers problem as the learner of ESL/EFL in the classroom when they pronoun and produce sound of the sentences. She point out material needed for comprehension, self-experience, and monitoring. In the context of English language teaching (ELT), pronunciation is an integral aspect of communicative competence that can impact the desire to use the language as well as the quantity and quality of input received and output produced. Pronunciation tends to be neglected in the second language (L2) classroom, and L2 teachers are frightened by the idea of teaching pronunciation. The author reviews seven goals that are very important for teaching pronunciation. They are increased attention from researchers, focus on developing learners’ communicative competence, a focus on teacher education, focus on intelligibility/comprehensibility, focus on methods and materials development, use of useful instructional software, and focus on the suprasegmentals. By applying seven types of teaching method the author claims that student can build up their confident in communication and monitoring their speech in classroom activities.

3.    Developing Children’s Listening and Speaking in ESL By Sabrina Peck

Teaching to the children of oral language is compulsory as the young learners of ESL/EFL. Peck in her book of ‘Developing Children’s Listening and Speaking’ stated that activities need to be child centered and communication should be authentic. This means that children are listening or speaking about something that interests them, for their own reasons, and not merely because a teacher has asked them to. She also outlines some points that the teacher should consider in the activities: a focus on meaning and value, not correctness; a focus on collaboration and social development; the provision of a rich context, and teaching the four skills through a variety of activities. A superior teacher encourages her/his students to speak English as much as possible inside and outside the classroom. She classifies the children and adult in different situation classroom setting of learning oral skill and children mostly likely to play with the language that they acquire than the adult. Furthermore she describes teaching of children in developing their listening and speaking the teacher should be built up them in real situation of teaching learning of the listening and speaking for example like organize them in group activities for jokes, rhymes, games, and chants. In teaching of ESL/EFL it’s suitable for the children under period of listening and speaking rather than writing, if other skill to be taught to them is unnecessary because at their age just for fun, so that why the author of developing children’s listening and speaking in ESL has applied the many methods and ways in teaching of the children and has been classify clearly.  In this book have been stated clearly that the author explore underlying significance of developing children’s listening and speaking theoretically and pedagogically. In this instance, she succinctly touches on theoretical concepts of teaching to the children. Thus, the book synthesizes the core features of language to provide language teachers of the children, professionals, and applied method of teaching with valuable guidelines on language for pedagogical purposes.

The Sociolinguistics Study of Varieties Addressing System In Bima-Dompu Society

Paper response Nusatenggara language and cultural in contact 

R u s d i n 

 Mataram University

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to explore the using of addressing system on their name in Bima society based on their social status in their social interaction. This study focusing on specific detail of addressing system name using around the social class of (suku mbojo) Bimaness  (e.g. Dae, dae, Ruma, Muma, Papi, Uma, Ince, Lalu, Lala, Rato, Tati, Teta, Dade, Tato, Uba, Pua, and Ama Ka’u dan Ina Ka’u). Those names have constructed their status in social interaction based on their relatives and kingdom’s breeds. The writer using library research based on the data found on the resources. In collecting the data focus only at Suku mbojo (Bima-Dompu) society. In conclusion the data result there are 17 addressing system using by Suku mbojo in their social life.

Key words: Sociolinguistics, Varieties, Addressing System, Suku Mbojo

I.  Introduction

Addressing names is one of the important relationship between language and society. People, objects, events, experiences, and feelings have a particular label or name solely because a community of people have arbitrarily decided to so name them. Names play vital roles in every society, they symbolize a man’s social position in relation to the people around him and his status is readily recognized. Address forms according to E. Chaika (1982) are socially driven phenomena, in other words they can mirror the complex social relations of individuals in a speech community. Argue that “in different social context different terms of address will be used”. Men and women use slightly different language styles.

The initial identification of women’s register was by R. Lakof (1973) he argued that the style of language served to maintain women’s (inferior) role in the society “female deficit approach”. A later refinement of this argument was that gender differences in language is reflecting a power difference W. M. O'Barr and K. A. Bauan (1989) “Dominance theory”. However, these perspectives have the language style of men as normative, impliedly, women’s style as inferior. More recently D. Tannen (2007) has compared gender differences in language as more similar to ‘cultural difference (Cultural difference approach). Comparing conversational goals, she argued that men have a report style, aiming to communicate factual information whereas women have a rapport style, more concerned with building and maintaining relationships. There are parts of address terms that are historically differentiated by sex alone, but which, overtime have gained different connotations (e.g., of status or values) and in some cases different denotations.

II.    Discussion

A.   Bima-Dompu Society (Suku Mbojo)

Bima-Dompu is one of the society using the same language called Bima language (nggahi mbojo). The community of Bima-Dompu its called ‘dou mbojo’ it’s mean Bimaness and Dompuness. Bima and Dompu is separated by regency its own each other namely Bima Regency lies at the east of Sumbawa island while Dompu it’s self lies close to Bima its separated by sea and mountain.

Bima and Dompu laid in Sumbawa island which they have own language to inter act in their life, while Sumbawa regency lies in the west and own language called samawa language its used only in samawaness. So in Sumbawa island there are 3 regency and two major language used. In this paper the writer would like to explore the using of predicate name in Bima language (ngahi mbojo) and limit only in Bima (dou mbojo) society language in used.

B.   Language as social interaction

Languages are not merely concerning with linguistic matters but they also serve social functions as well. Language and society cannot be separated in their life to connect each other, understanding using language it can appear in language variation some of is society life.  Bimaness has variation language in used based on situation and social status and class so, language is the key to a person’s self identity. It enables the person to express motions, share feelings, and convey complex messages and knowledge.

According to Imberti, (2007) Language is our greatest mediator that allows us to relate and understand each other. It can be defined as a system of conceptual symbols that allows us to communicate. It also provides us with a significant frame of reference and a relational context that sustains our identities (Imberti, 2007). The social identity theory (Tajfel, 1974; Tajfel & Turner, 1979) focuses on the understanding of psychological processes driving intergroup discrimination. Consequently, the understanding of the link between language and social identity patterns is of great importance to the international business community. Based on the expert above the language is one of the tool of social inter act in their life to communicate each other and to create the easy transformation of anything in need, as in Bima-Dompu society the language is the kind of their identity by meant of using their own language itself.

In the ancient time Bima-Dompu society (dou mbojo) has own language called ‘nggahi mbojo’ it’s occur when the society landed in areal of Bima land and they constructed to be primarily language according to Erwin, dkk. (2013). In dou mbojo its self is compared with two major social class it’s low and high social class. Low social is the society common society or not breeds of kingdom while the high social is the breeds of kingdom.

C.  The prestige and dialect to construct Status social (status symbol)

Prestige is the level of respect accorded to a language or dialect as compared to that of other languages or dialects in a speech community. The concept of prestige in sociolinguistics is closely related to that of prestige or class within a society. Generally, there is positive prestige associated with the language or dialect of the upper classes, and negative prestige with the language or dialect of the lower classes. The concept of prestige is also closely tied to the idea of the standard language, in that the most prestigious dialect is likely to be considered the standard language.  Prestige is particularly visible in situations where two or more languages come in contact, and in diverse, socially stratified urban environments, in which there are likely to be speakers of different languages or dialects interacting frequently. Despite common perceptions that certain dialects or languages are relatively good or bad, correct or incorrect.

Prestige influences whether a language variety is considered a language or dialect. In discussing definitions of language, Dell Hymes wrote that "sometimes two communities are said to have the same, or different, languages on the grounds of mutual ineligibility, or lack thereof", but alone, this definition is often insufficient. Different language varieties in an area exist along a dialect continuum, and moving goegraphicallyoften means a change in the local variety..

D.  Class, wealth, and prestige

In this paragraph there are three types of function of variables in social life, it can classify as social class: Power in the degree to which a person can control other people, Wealth is objects or symbols owned by people who have value attached to them, and Prestige is the degree of respect, favorable regard, or importance accorded to a person by members of society.

While some differences between dialect are ragional in nature, there are also social causes for differences in dialects. Very often, the "public prestige dialect of the elite in a stratified community differs from the dialect of the non-elite strata. In fact, in an article which in part tried to motivate the study of sociolinguistic, Fasold, Ralph (1990) wrote that "the importance of language as a mirror of culture can be demonstrated by dialect differences". Thus the relation between the way speakers use a language and their social status is a long recognized tool in sociolinguistics.

The custom addressing system name for a social community is the affirmation of a social identity and cultural identity as well. Its use is often invoked to know social stratification which tends to repeat eras caste division in the old era. For the people of Bima-Dompu, addressing system are also important not only has to look at the connotative side, but it’s also necessary to facilitate the perpetuation of one's relationship.

E.   The Addressing system of Suku Mbojo

For most of the people in wide range, the use of a certain addressing is already a social legacy for generations. Then in the present some of it’s no longer addressing system serves to discriminate between a person's social statuses, but is used as a nickname for reducing the naming habits. Because it’s in the tradition of Indonesian people particularly in ‘dou mbojo’ society, rarely do we call others to the original name with directly. The Bimaness (dou Mbojo) addressing system name commonly found in their communication each other in the same age, old and young, child to their parents. The familiar addressing system name found in ‘dou mbojo’: Dae, dae, Ruma,Muma, Papi, Uma, Ince, Lalu, Lala, Rato, Tati, , Teta, Dade, Tato, Uba, Pua, Ama Ka’u dan Ina Ka’u. To specification of all addressing system names can follows:

1.      Dae

This addressing system name is derived from Gowa originally is Daeng. The contact between Bima and Makassar has became connectivity and adoption of cultural kinship. There are two kinds the function of Daeng. First; Daeng as the title to an older person or elder. Same with ‘Mas’ for the Javanese, Sundanese or ‘Akang’ for people. This addressing system was originally only owned Makassar tribe of Daeng, and actually part of the tribal culture of Makassar. Daeng as a call to an older person is used equally to men and women. Second; Daeng is for more specific part of paddaengang. So, 'Paddaengang' is in the tradition of Makassar tribes is an important part. Polite or paddaengang name is usually taken from the names of ancestors or elders in the family line of Makassar tribes. But there are also forms of physical characteristics or behavior. According to the Bimaness tongue the term Daeng becomes Dae. The term is usually applied to the royal family who still has a kinship to the top of the consort of Gowa. But now Dae has generally accepted by society of Bima and Dompu, even though the reason why the title name of Dae is no specific as Dae itself, in generally now days the predicate name of Dae can be stated at new people. In Dompu calls Dae sometimes almost uniformly used as a greeting of respect for elders.

2.      'dae
These calls sound similar to Dae glance, but their mention is very different. If Dae called clearly articulated consonants D is thick, it does not sound the same as' dae which the letter D it came out thin by touching the tip of the tongue on the palate. Its meaning is not clear, but this call was preserved in some villages in the eastern city of Bima.

3.      Ruma

This addressing system for breeds of the king and who have relative from prophet of Muhammad saw. Example in Kareke village of Dompu called ‘Ruma sehe’, Sehe Boe’ and for their direct descend. And it can be the people who have relative descant of the king. But now days this name are rarely found as the change of life style and democratization of mind set of the people didn’t care much about it.   

4.      Muma

The term is almost difficult to find in Gowa cosmology and other areas in the archipelago. According to book of Bo’ Sangaji Kai of Bima suspected in Loir, Hendri Chambert & Maryam. (1999), it looks like this is called refraction dialect of Ruma. However, most of these designations are also used in general for most people who have breeds kingdom. Muma was assumed if the term is derived from the title of traditional Minang 'Mamak' is defined as the main mother in local customs. However, this allegation does not have the proper historical reasons. Some assume that addressing system name of Muma is the occur high class people from breeds of the king by their relatives. Some believe that using name of Muma is closely with the Ruma it’s mean that high prestige people who have relatives from the king of Bima. In this day using of Ruma it is unfamiliar as change of live in new era so they soften to Muma more familiar then.

5.      Papi

This addressing system name is one of the dou mbojo prestige, most people used in Kandai 2 Dompu, Kampung Rato, Karijawa. They claim that this predicate coming to used as they are from relatives of the peerage or being prestige by the low social status.

6.      Ince

This addressing system name is definitely derived from Malayu, rather than Pagaruyung in Minangkabau tribe, from the beginning was Encik or Cik, which later became the dialect of the Bima Ince. The land is located in the District Lambu Melayu village today. Naturally, then, that in the village to this day the titles remain pinned to the descendants of Malayu.

7.      Lalu

This addressing system name commonly found in Sasakness but this predicate also used in Dompu as their high prestige for a men, commonly found in ‘Kampung Rato’ Karijawa of Dompu regency. This predicate is same as Rato but Lalu is using part of Muma, as an example: Lalu Rahman, Lalu Hidayat ect.   

8.      Lala

This addressing system name same as Lalu but Lala used for the women, commonly found in Bali bunga, Kampung Rato, Karijawa, Bada and Mantro of Dompu (Lala Inda, Lala Sukmawati, Lala Ida ect.)

9.      Rato

This addressing system name is one of the commonly used in Bimaness as the addressing for their high class social status. Rato mean same as Ruma and Muma.

10.  Teta

This addressing system name comes from the influence of Bugis Bone, of the word 'Petta'. This calls for special show nobility in society breeds Bone. Petta is also a nickname for the village chief retainer or Ana who never participated in the typical forces. The term was later changed in chanting the Bima becomes Tetta. This name first time occur in Bima is during the army from Goa coming to Bima to help the army of Bimaness fighting again with Dutch army in Ngali and Dena. During that time the Goa army didn’t back to Sulawesi so they married with Bimaness mostly they life in Sila, Dena, and Ngali.  

11.  Uba

This addressing system name it is including the oldest in the Bima community tradition. The term is quite difficult Uba traced in anthropological, and while this may be almost extinct from the Bima association. If judging in a phenomenological perspective, the mention of the word is limited Uba also attributed to a particular clan, which revolves more Sape region. Uba is the old language of the Bima to used as a nickname for the King's loyal army since the days of the Hindu. They were brave and supernatural. This term was only pinned to the male lineage. People of Sape are commonly used.

12.  Dade

This addressing system name rarely found in dou mbojo society but this still found in Kandai dua, Karijawa, and Bada of Dompu. Dade is similarity as Muma but Dade is can be used for the people who working at the kingdom.

13.  Tato

This addressing system name designation is also an influence of Melayu Minang. Datok word tattoo comes from the Minang dialect is pronounced "Datuak", is a customary title given to a person through the agreement of a people or tribe that is in the Minangkabau region and subsequently approved up to the level of customary meeting by leaders of local traditional leaders . This title can also be given in addition to men but also to women, and often added with other titles such as Sri. In the history of the Bima was the wife of Sultan Abdul Hamid called the daughter of Sultan Datu Harun Sagiri Arrasyid King of Sumbawa. Called Tattoos for Bimaness has been shorten the meaning for 'grandfather'. So in commonly they are calling his grandfather as Ato.

14.  Tati

This addressing system name also comes from the Melayu. Originally was Datin, which is used to refer to the high nobility Melayu, currently the title Datin. This title is usually pinned on female or female lineage. According to the tongue of the Bimaness become Tati. This title is only in Soro village Melayu District of Lambu. Not so many people are using it, because in the village of Soro Melayu there, people who use this designation are quite limited, and apply only to a particular family.

15.  Uma

This addressing system name is the same as Ruma its mean to appreciate the old people or daughter to father. This title occur when the kingdom of Bima and Dompu ‘great/berkuasa’ up to now who have breeds of the king it’s still used particularly in Dompu. This name had used for the people who have been going to hajj and commonly used for the daughter calling their father.

16.  Pua

The term comes from the Bugis, who in Bugis dialect called Puang. The forces of Bugis who pioneered this new township on the east coast of Sape, then build in the region of the Bima Bugis culture. Perpetuating this culture is also legitimized by the Bima aristocratic relations are bound to Sulawesi, marriage with the king consort of Bugis, and other contacts. The name of  Puang still widely used in rural communities in Sape Bugis and Melayu, which later changed over time according to the dialect of the Bima become Pua.

17.  Ama Ka’u and Ina Ka’u

This predicate is for a king and his direct descendants often summoned as Ama Ka'u for the men, and Ina Ka'u for the women. This call may seem more widely and populist, because it suggests a more sincere relationship between the people and their leaders, so that sociologically it will feel a strong emotional connection between the people of Bima with King. This term is a name (extension) for the original Bima past society to glorify their leaders. However, it looks like this started as unlimited calls to a social community that is more established.

III.   Conclusion

It can be concludes for those addressing system occur in Bima-Dompu social interaction some is derived from uptake. It’s influenced predominantly by the cross-community interaction between the Bimaness with migrant communities. Cultural assimilation is very determinant has changed the culture of the original Bimaness become a strong social structure that implements a wide range of apply the outsider culture particularly Gowa Makasar culture. Included in the terms of use of addressing system name, the original names are always used with a custom label specific to affirm one's genetic identity.

Only difference is that, if in the region of origin, the predicate that is always attributed as part of a name. While in Bima-Dompu, the predicate is only used as a typical call to simply distinguish social status. For example; the generations is always called Tati and Datok, then people will call with Tati La Mala. Similarly, when used predicate name of Dae, will be Dae La Mala, or Pua La Mala, Ince La Mala, Tattoo La Mala, Teta La Anis and Uba La Anis. In fact by using of predicate name that mean to polite and to close friendship.

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